Vitamins

Low molecular weight organic substances
In a small amount necessary for life
Not a source of energy for the body

Source: http://www.nactalia.com/

Water-soluble vitamins
Vitamin C
It helps absorbing iron, forming collagen and red blood cells
Deficiency causes bleeding, gingivitis
Source: Vegetables - peppers, cabbage
Fruit - strawberries, red currants, oranges, lemons

Vitamin B1
Involved in carbohydrate metabolism
Deficiency causes cramps, fatigue, digestive disorders
Source: cereals, yeast, legumes, offal

Vitamin B2
Deficiency causes inflammation of the corners of the mouth, skin lesions and mucous membranes
Source: meat, milk, eggs, liver

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Biotin = Vitamin H
Supporting growth and cell division
Deficiency causes skin diseases, fatigue
Source: eggs, liver, meat, yeast

Fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamin A
Component of the visual pigment
Deficiency causes night blindness, growth arrest
Source: liver, egg, meat, cheese, fat seafood

Vitamins D
Group of vitamins - most important is D2 and D3
Promotes the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus
Deficiency causes softening and deformation of bones
Source: meat, liver, UV-fat seafood

Source: http://www.calivita.si/

Vitamin E
Protects cell membranes, supports the activity of the gonads
Deficiency causes muscle weakness, impaired vascular system
Source: vegetable oils

Vitamin K
It participates in the blood coagulation process
Deficiency causes blood clotting disorder
Source: leafy vegetables, formed by intestinal bacteria

Substitution derivatives of carboxylic acids

Derived by substituting one or more hydrogen atoms with another atom or functional group
They have properties similar to carboxylic acid

Halogenoacids
Mostly crystalline and toxic
The closer is a halogen atom to the carboxyl group, the acid is stronger
The higher the number of halogen atoms in the molecule, the acid is stronger

Hydroxy acids
Crystalline
They are prepared by hydrolysis of the sodium salts of halogen acids

Salicylic acid

Salicylic acid
It is used in dermatology - low concentration stimulates the skin epithelium growth

Lactic acid
Is created by lactic fermentation of sugars
In milk, cheese, sauerkraut

Citric acid
In fruits
Part of the Krebs cycle - Intermediate of metabolism of nutrients

Lactic acid

Tartaric acid
In fruits
It is used to adjust the acidity of wine, fruit beverages

Ketoacids
Participate in the biochemical processes

Pyruvic acid
It is a product of glycolysis
It is metabolism of alcohol and lactic fermentation

Pyruvic acid

Amino acids
COOH - sour
NH2 - alkaline
Colorless, crystalline

Isoelectric point - the pH at which the amino acid is neutral

Dipeptide
Molecule composed of two molecules of the amino acid
If both are the same amino acid = homodipeptid
If the amino acids are different = heteropeptid

Chemical bonds

Force interaction, which energetically stabilizes the combined atoms and contributes to the formation of the molecule
The molecule has a lower energy than the original single atoms had before the merger

Binding energy - the energy which is released by bond formation - the greater the value of this energy, the atoms are tightly bonded to each other

Dissociation energy of bond - the energy which is necessary to deliver for split of bond

The length of bond - is the distance between the nuclei of atoms - is determined by spectral methods

The bond strength - increases with increasing binding regulations - multiplicity

Covalent bond
The electrons are shared so that each fill part of the valence electron shell
In organic compounds and inorganic molecules with a crystal lattice consisting of the same atoms, for example: diamond

σ bond is at the junction of cores and π bond is outside of junction of cores
At room temperature compounds are liquid or gaseous

Coordination - covalent bond
= Donor-acceptor bond
Donor - Provides free electron pair
Characteristics do not differ from covalent bonds
Especially in complex compounds

Nonpolar bond
Difference of electronegativity is less than 0.4
Molecules composed of the same atoms, carbon dioxide, methane, etc. have this bond

Polar bond
Difference of electronegativity is 0.4 < X <1.67
Shared electrons are attracted to one of the atom more
It occurs in water, methanol, glycerol, inorganic compounds, formic acid, acetic acid

Ionic bond
Difference of  electronegativity is greater than 1.67
One atom attracts one or more electrons from another atom - with electrons reaches a stable electron configuration and becomes an anion = negative ion and second atom becomes cation = positive ion
Ionic compounds are dissolved in water
The strongest ionic bond occurs with metal salts

Metallic bond
Valence electrons of atoms are freely shared --> ions are surrounded by "electron gas"
The presence of free electrons results in a high thermal and electrical conductivity, a regular crystal lattice

Weak bonding interactions
Hydrogen bonds
H has the ability of interact with two strongly electronegative elements
Occurs between hydrogen atoms and O, N, F

Van der Waals forces
Irregular placement and movement of electrons
The most commonly occur among nonpolar molecules

Glycerol

= Glycerine = Glycerin
Is simple alcohol, sweet-tasting, non-toxic, colorless, odorless
Liquid that is used in pharmaceutical formulations
Has three hydroxyl groups - cause solubility in water and hygroscopic nature
It can be produced by synthetic way, derived from plants (soybean, palm) or animals
It serves in food and beverages as a humectant, solvent, sweetener and preservative
Used in pharmaceutical and medical preparations as a means of improving smoothness, as a humectant and providing lubrication
I have this compound in gel on aphthae

Cyclomethicone

It ranks among the liquid silicones
It have the characteristics of low viscosity and high volatility
Used in many cosmetic products where is desired complete evaporation of the siloxane carrier fluid
Useful in deodorants and antiperspirants which need to coat the skin but not remain tacky afterward
It is part of Glisskur spray for repairing hair

Transition metals

Transition metals = Transition elements
They create complex ions which dye solutions

Titanium
Lightweight, rigid, corrosion-resistant alloys are used for manufacturing aircraft wings, artificial joints, pacemakers, jewelry

Chromium
White metal
In nature, it occurs as chromite
It is used as an anti-corrosive coating of steel objects, to chrome plating car parts and cutlery

Cobalt
Silvery-white ferromagnetic metal
It occurs in compounds with sulfur and arsenic
From the alloys with iron are produced magnets

Nickel
Ferromagnetic metal
It is used for plating and manufacturing batteries
Alloys finds application in the manufacture of coins

Niobium
Rare gray metal
Alloys used in the aircraft and aerospace engineering

Silver
Soft
From silver is produced jewelery, coins
Halides are used in photography

Cadmium
It is used as part of the control rods of nuclear reactors

Tungsten =  Wolfram
Hard, gray, corrosion-resistant
To the alloys for tools and fibers into bulbs

Platinum
To produce electrical contacts, jewelry, implants, pacemakers

Gold
Soft, shiny, yellow, very unreactive
In nature in a pure state
To increase hardness is added Cu and Ag
Alloys are used in jewelery, dentistry

Mercury = Quicksilver =  Hydrargyrum
Toxic, silvery-white liquid metal
In thermometers, barometers

Iron
Soft, white, magnetic
In nature only in compounds
Is obtained from hematite or magnetite due to melting in a blast furnace
Creates ionic and covalent compounds
By reaction with atmospheric moisture it corrodes

Iron production in a blast furnace
Iron produced in a blast furnace is crude
Contains 5% carbon and 4% other impurities - eg .: sulfur
Most of pig iron is processed into steel

Steel

Alloy of Fe and C (<1.5%)

C increases the hardness and strength but reduces the ductility and malleability

It is produced by removing impurities from molten pig iron

Ferrous scrap, pig iron and lime is charged into the furnace, where oxygen is blown, which oxidizes impurities

Copper

In nature, it occurs in a pure state and compounds - eg.: chalcopyrite

Unreactive, on air it loses its luster and covers a green layer of alkaline sulfate

Electric wires. lines, water pipes, heating systems are produced from copper

Alloys: brass contains Zn, Bronze contains Cn

Cupric chloride is used in pyrotechnics

Spelter = Zinc

Silvery, soft, on air it loses its shine

In nature, it occurs in sphalerite

It is obtained by roasting the ore to form ZnO and the reduction of coke

Zinc oxide is contained in creams for baby rash

Alkaline earth metals

They occur in nature as compounds
From rocks are mainly obtained roasted manner
Very reactive
White metals
On air they lose metallic sheen

Beryllium
In jewelery is used as precious and semiprecious stones
Alloys are used in the manufacture of electrical contacts and electrodes for arc welding
Alloys with low density components are used for constructing of aircraft and spacecraft

Magnesium
Is produced due to thermal method
It occurs in dolomite and seawater
On air it burns bright white flame
It is used in the manufacture of alloys to aircraft design
Ions are bonded in chlorophyll due to Magnesium

Calcium
The most prized grape variety of limestone is marble - is used for cladding buildings, statues
It Burns red flame
Chemical transitions between calcium carbonate and calcium bicarbonate =  calcium hydrogen carbonate are the reason of formation karst phenomena
Calcium carbonate is used in the construction industry, for the manufacture of chalk, paints and tooth powders
Gypsum = calcium sulfate hemihydrate
Biogenic element - bones, teeth, muscles, blood, body tissue, clams, protecting the body of gastropods and bivalves

Strontium
Used in pyrotechnic products

Barium
Toxic metal
Barium peroxide is used for bleaching silks and sold in disinfectants
Barium carbonate is used to produce glass and poisonous baits to rodents

Radium
In the pure state is white and heavy
1898 - discovered by Marie Curie Sklodowska

Alkali metals

The most reactive metals - reactivity increases from Li to Fr
Due of the reactivity, they are stored under kerosene
In the valence shell they have only one electron, which makes them strong reducing agents
In nature they exist only in compounds
Soft, lightweight, shiny metals
All of them are good conductors of electricity and heat
They have very low melting points


Lithium
On air it burns crimson red flame
Compound with chloride is in devices for air conditioning
Lithium batteries and rechargeable batteries are used in electric motors
Lithium hydroxide is used to absorb CO₂ from the stale air in submarines and spaceships


Sodium
It is a biogenic element - found in all cells of plant and animal tissues
On air it burns orange yellow flame
Sodium hydrogen carbonate = Sodium bicarbonate is part of baking powder
In the nuclear industry and in aircraft engines is used as a material for dissipate heat
Sodium peroxide is applied in washing powders


Potassium
Well represented on Earth and in space
Its compounds are in seawater
Saltpeter = Potassium nitrate is used in the production of fertilizers and explosives
Potassium hydroxide is used in liquid soaps, medicines, artificial silk


Rubidium
Soft as wax
It is used in photocells serving for the direct conversion of light energy into electrical
Rubidium salts are added to a mixture of pyrotechnics and lighting effects are dyed to purple


Cesium
It is used in photocells, to construct power tubes, in night vision devices, television receivers


Francium
The heaviest chemical element of alkali metals